Metabolism of the cutin and wax of plants and their disease resistance mechanisms

ZHANG Qihui; LI Xiaoman; LONG Xiyang; HU Baoyu; XIAO Xinli; ZHANG Xiaowen; TAKPAH Dennis; YANG Caiqiong; YANG Wenyu; LIU Jiang

doi:10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20190745

Volume 37 Issue 6

Dec. 2020

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Article Navigation > Journal of Zhejiang A&F University > 2020 > 37(6): 1207-1215

ZHANG Qihui, LI Xiaoman, LONG Xiyang, HU Baoyu, XIAO Xinli, ZHANG Xiaowen, TAKPAH Dennis, YANG Caiqiong, YANG Wenyu, LIU Jiang. Metabolism of the cutin and wax of plants and their disease resistance mechanisms[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2020, 37(6): 1207-1215. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20190745

Citation:

ZHANG Qihui, LI Xiaoman, LONG Xiyang, HU Baoyu, XIAO Xinli, ZHANG Xiaowen, TAKPAH Dennis, YANG Caiqiong, YANG Wenyu, LIU Jiang. Metabolism of the cutin and wax of plants and their disease resistance mechanisms[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2020, 37(6): 1207-1215. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20190745

Metabolism of the cutin and wax of plants and their disease resistance mechanisms

doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20190745

ZHANG Qihui^{1, 2
,},
LI Xiaoman^{1, 2},
LONG Xiyang¹,
HU Baoyu^{1, 2},
XIAO Xinli^{1, 2},
ZHANG Xiaowen¹,
TAKPAH Dennis^{1, 2},
YANG Caiqiong^{1, 2},
YANG Wenyu^{1, 2
,
,},
LIU Jiang^{1, 2, 3
,
,}

1.
Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest, Ministry of Agriculture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China
2.
Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China
3.
Institute of Ecological Agriculture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, Sichuan, China

Received Date: 2019-12-23
Rev Recd Date: 2020-07-22

Available Online: 2020-12-01

Publish Date: 2020-12-01

Abstract

As a type of secondary metabolites produced by plants during long-term ecological adaptation, cutin and wax are widely involved in many resistance physiological processes including stress defense and resistance to pests and diseases, playing critical roles in the plant-pathogen interaction, thus becoming an important part of plant disease resistance mechanism. With the development of molecular biology, there is an increasing understanding on the cutin and wax metabolism and their mechanisms against fungal disease in plant. With prior researches mainly focused on the constitutive resistance and inducible resistance of plant cutin and wax, the present study, with a review of the research progress achieved on the plant cutin and wax biosynthesis and its disease resistance mechanism, is aimed to put forward prospects for future research. It was concluded that (1) as the main components of the cuticle, the first line of defense for plants against pathogen infection, cutin and wax play a critical role in physical resistance (physical barrier) and chemical resistance (bacteriostasis) as constitutive resistance components, (2) They can also play the role of inducible resistance components and (3) in addition to being the main component of the cuticle to exert physical resistance, the inducible cutin and wax component can also act as a signal molecule or inducer to activate downstream resistance reactions and exert its chemical resistance function. In the future, the research concerning cutin and wax can be focused on an in-depth explanation of the mechanism of cutin and wax inducible resistance, so as to further enrich the theoretical system of plant chemical ecology. In addition, cutin and wax biopesticides (plant immunity inducers) can be developed based on the inducible resistance of cutin and wax to provide new insight for the plant diseases control. [Ch, 1 fig. 71 ref.]
- cutin,
- wax,
- constitutive resistance,
- inducible resistance,
- review

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1.1. 角质层蜡质生物合成

角质层是植物地上部分一层重要的疏水性保护膜，对植物适应复杂多变的环境具有重要意义^[5]。最新研究证实：植物根冠和胚胎中也存在角质层结构，其中根冠角质层在植物应对渗透胁迫和侧根形成中发挥了重要作用，而胚胎角质层则在成熟种子中起着扩散屏障以及调控种子萌发的作用^[6-7]。角质层结构可分为三部分：第1部分是由嵌入细胞壁多糖的角质以及蜡质组成的角质层基层；第2部分是由角质和镶嵌在角质内部的蜡质共同组成的真角质层；第3部分是由蜡质膜/蜡质晶体沉积在植物表面形成的蜡质层^[8]。

角质层由角质和蜡质组成，其中蜡质又分为表层蜡质和内部蜡质。角质层蜡质由超过20个碳原子的超长链脂肪酸(VLCFAs)及其衍生物组成，包括醛、烷烃、支链烷烃、烯烃、伯醇、仲醇、不饱和脂肪醇、酮和蜡酯，以及萜类和甾醇类的环状化合物等^[9]。利用正向和反向的遗传学手段对拟南芥Arabidopsis thaliana等模式植物开展研究，目前蜡质的生物合成途径已经基本弄清。对拟南芥中大量蜡质合成缺陷突变体ECERIFERUM(CER)的研究，已经分离鉴定出了一大批涉及蜡质生物合成的蜡质突变体基因(CER)。质体合成的C₁₆、C₁₈脂肪酸是蜡质合成的重要前体物，在长链脂酰辅酶A合成酶(LACS)的作用下以脂酰-COA的形式运输到内质网，通过内质网上的脂肪酸延长酶复合体以及BAHD酰基转移酶CER2及其同系物CER2-LIKE1/ CER26和CER2-LIKE2在内的一些辅助因子的协同作用进行碳链延伸^[10]，生成C₂₀以上的超长链脂酰-COA；随后通过烷烃合成途径形成醛、烷烃、次级醇和酮等蜡质组分，或通过内质网的醇合成途径形成初级醇和蜡酯等蜡质组分^[11]。拟南芥烷烃合成酶CER1和WAX2/CER3基因突变体，其醛、烷烃、次级醇和酮的含量降低，这与烷烃合成通路的代谢产物一致；而CER1、WAX2/CER3和CYTB5共表达引起来自超长链脂酰-CoA的超长链烷烃的氧化还原依赖性合成，表明其可能编码烷烃合成途径中烷烃的合成^[12]。作为拟南芥中编码醛脱羧酶的CER1基因家族成员之一的CER1-like1也通过与CER1相同的机制在烷烃的生物合成中起着至关重要的作用，但CER1-like1更偏向于催化短链烷烃的合成^[13]。烷烃合成途径的最终反应被认为是由属于细胞色素P450家族的中链烷烃羟化酶1(MAH1/CYP96A15)催化烷烃氧化产生次级醇，并进一步催化次级醇氧化生成酮类^[14]。研究表明：在醇合成途径中，编码脂酰辅酶A还原酶的CER4基因负责地上部分组织表皮细胞和根中初级醇的合成，而编码蜡酯合成酶基因的WSD1基因其拟南芥突变体表现出比野生型更低的蜡酯含量，表明WSD1可能负责蜡酯的合成^[15-17]。

1.2. 角质层角质生物合成

成熟角质层中还含有角质，角质是一种主要由ω端和中链羟基化的C₁₆和C₁₈的氧化脂肪酸以及甘油以酯键交联而成的聚合物^[18]。角质单体的合成在内质网上进行，内质网对质体产生的C₁₆和C₁₈脂肪酸进一步修饰合成各种以单酰基甘油酯形式存在的角质单体。角质单体的合成涉及许多氧化反应，由细胞色素P450酶催化，其中末端碳链氧化反应涉及细胞色素P450末端羟化酶(CYP86A)家族成员，而中链氧化反应涉及细胞色素P450中链羟化酶(CYP77A)家族成员。拟南芥CYP86A2、CYP86A4、CYP86A7和CYP86A8突变体表现出角质层结构异常和角质组分改变，表明这几个基因与角质生物合成中ω链的羟基化密切相关^[19]。ω-羟基脂肪酸则进一步经过脱氢反应生成脂肪醛，脂肪醛再经氧化反应最终生成二羧酸；虽然催化该过程的酶尚不清楚，但是由于CYP86A2和HTH(hothead)这2个基因的拟南芥突变体中缺少二羧酸，因此认为其可能涉及ω-OH脂肪酸氧化生成二羧酸的反应^[20-21]。CYP77A6是目前唯一被鉴定为能够进行中链羟化的酶，CYP77A基因在花瓣中强烈表达，但在其拟南芥突变体的花瓣中却完全丢失了二羟基角质单体；其异源表达结果表明：该基因特异性催化ω-OH脂肪酸的中链羟基化，这也表明角质合成的中链羟基化反应发生在末端羟基化之后^[22]。此外，CYP77A4异源表达催化环氧化羟基脂肪酸的合成，表明其可能参与环氧化脂肪酸的合成，但目前尚未完全证实。角质单体合成的最终反应由甘油-3-磷酸酰基转移酶(GPAT)催化完成，脂酰-COA在甘油-3-磷酸酰基转移酶(GPAT)催化下，酰基转移至甘油-3-磷酸生产单酰基甘油角质单体。拟南芥GPAT1-8基因被报道在细胞外脂质聚酯的合成中起着重要作用，其中GPAT4-8已经被证明有助于角质的合成，并且这几种酶相较于未被取代的脂肪酸表现出对末端羟基或羧基脂肪酸具有更强的催化效率，表明他们在氧化反应之后发挥作用^[23]。

质膜ATP结合盒转运蛋白(ABCG)已经被证明可能与角质和蜡质向质外体的转运有关；而脂质转移蛋白(LTPs)被证明很可能有助于角质单体通过细胞壁向角质层的转运^[24]。随着番茄Solanum lycopersicum中CD1/GDSL1这第1个角质合酶的发现，长久以来存疑的脂肪酶(GDSL)家族的酶在角质组装中的作用也得到了确证^[25-27]，而拟南芥α/β水解酶蛋白基因BODYGUARD (BDG)的发现证明了植物中可能存在一些其他的角质合酶^[28]。尽管目前的研究已经在角质蜡质的合成、运输、组装方面取得了一定的进展，但角质层的形成机制仍然未知。

2. 植物的抗病类型

2.1. 组成型抗性

组成型抗性是植物的固有特性，是植物在遭受侵害前就己存在的抗性，包含植物固有的层和细胞壁的角质、蜡质、木质素等成分。其中，化学抗性主要包括酚类、皂苷、不饱和内酯及有机硫化合物等植保素(phytoalexins)^[29]。组成型抗性是植物在长期的系统发育中产生和发展起来的^[30]，由植物基因型决定，但其抗性强弱也会受到环境因素的影响。

2.2. 诱导型抗性

诱导型抗性是指植物经病原物刺激后诱导产生的抗性成分或抗性反应，包括物理抗性和化学抗性2类。物理抗性包括细胞壁及角质层加固和修复、乳突的形成、木质化作用及侵填体的形成等^[31]。化学抗性则包括过敏性反应的诱导、植保素的产生、水解酶的激活及病程相关蛋白的表达等。诱导型抗性类似于免疫反应，只有在遇到外界因子，如物理损伤、植食者取食和病原菌侵染时才得以表现^[32]。因此，诱导型抗性具有“开-关效应”，也称作“兼性抗性”。物理抗性与化学抗性通常协同发挥作用，一些物理屏障和化学因子不仅属于组成型抗性，也会在诱导型抗性中起重要作用，典型的如角质蜡质。

诱导型抗性并非植物的原始性状，而是一种衍生性状。植物长期处于复杂的环境中，容易受到各种病原物的侵害，组成型抗性是一种被动的防御机制，并不能确保植物对病原物的完全防御。为了更好地抵御病原菌的入侵，植物进化出了一系列诱导防御反应，植物的这种抵抗外界病原物刺激所形成的防御反应又被称为植物的先天免疫。植物先天免疫由微生物、病原体和/或损伤相关的分子模式(分别为MAMP，PAMP和/或DAMP)识别相应的化学分子所触发^[33]，这些化学分子在植物与微生物相互作用过程中释放，并被模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs)识别。

植物的先天免疫包括两大类，病原物相关分子模式触发型免疫(PAMP-triggered immunity，PTI)和效应因子触发型免疫(effector-triggered immunity，ETI)^[34]。植物-病原体互作中植物启动先天免疫的第1步是植物模式识别受体(PRRs)识别病原相关分子模式(PAMPs)的化学分子，引发病原相关分子模式触发的免疫反应(PTI)，激活植物体中促丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号通路，从而使植物产生早期应答反应^[35]。然而，病原体为了抑制植物的诱导型防御反应便于自身的入侵反应，往往会产生大量抑制PTI激活的效应因子，而植物此时会启动先天免疫的第2步反应，通过特异性的抗性蛋白(R蛋白)识别效应因子，在侵染位点启动快速剧烈的防御反应，这种防御反应即为ETI^[36]。ETI诱导的抗性通常表现为入侵位点的细胞凋亡，即过敏反应^[37]。

MAMPs/PAMPs或DAMPs都可以诱导PTI^[38]，并且相较于特异性的ETI具有更加广谱的抗性反应，如活性氧(ROS)积累，激活MAPK依赖性信号级联反应，植物抗毒素的生物合成，水杨酸(SA)、茉莉酸(JA)和乙烯(ET)等防御相关激素以及相关抗性基因的诱导表达^{[33, 39]}。植物的这2种免疫反应机制通过启动防御反应诱导植物产生局部和系统抗性，两者协同作用进而抵御病原菌的入侵^[40]。植物在侵染位点启动超敏反应特异性抵御病原菌侵染的这种反应被称为植物的局部抗性，而与之相对的，植物活化抗性基因使植物在整株水平上产生抗性或者产生抵御病原菌再次入侵的抗性，这种非专化性的抗性则被称为系统抗性^[41]。通常植物的系统抗性包括诱导系统抗性(ISR)和获得性系统抗性(SAR)，ISR主要由非致病菌诱导产生，而SAR则是由植物响应病原菌侵染产生的^[42]。这2种系统抗性依赖于SA，JA和ET信号途径的协同效应。SA和JA作为植物中十分重要的2条信号途径，在抗病化学信号的转导中的作用尤为重要。现在也有越来越多的证据表明，角质和蜡质在植物的诱导防御反应中也扮演着重要的角色^[43]。

4. 结论与展望

角质层作为植物抵御病原菌侵染的第1道防线，在植物-病原互作中具有重要作用。角质蜡质是角质层主要成分，一方面可以作为组成型抗性成分发挥物理抗性(物理屏障)和化学抗性(抑菌)作用；另一方面，也可作为诱导型抗性成分发挥作用，诱导产生的角质蜡质组分可作为信号分子或者诱导子激活下游的抗性反应进而发挥其化学抗性功能。目前，角质蜡质介导的诱导抗性研究受到广泛关注，但其作用机理尚未完全阐明；哪些角质蜡质组分参与了植物的诱导型防御反应，其作为诱导子激活下游抗性反应的具体机制如何？激素信号介导的角质蜡质抗性机制如何？诸多问题均有待深入探讨，角质蜡质抗性机理的阐释为作物抗性育种提供了新的思路。此外，虽然已有相关研究表明角质蜡质具有抑菌活性和植物免疫反应诱导子的作用，但目前尚无角质蜡质类生物农药(植物免疫诱导剂)的报道。因此，角质蜡质作为生物农药(植物免疫诱导剂)具有广阔的开发前景，同时角质蜡质类生物农药(植物免疫诱导剂)的开发也将为病害防控提供新的思路。

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