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木材是一种多孔性、层次状、各向异性的非均质天然高分子复合材料,主要由纤维素、半纤维素和木质素3种高分子聚合物组成。木材的实体物质为其细胞壁,细胞壁中的纤维素通过分子链聚集成排列有序的微纤丝束,构成了细胞壁的基本骨架[1]。揭示木材细胞壁特别是其骨架的超微构造的形成及变化规律,对木材细胞壁的改性处理以及后续的遗传改良等具有重要的科学意义。木材细胞壁在超微水平上主要以纤维素微纤丝及结晶区的形式体现,木材科学中常用微纤丝角表征细胞次生壁S2层中微纤丝排列方向与细胞主轴方向的夹角,用结晶度和微晶形态表征结晶区和其基本组成结构的大小[1]。木材细胞壁超微构造即微纤丝和结晶区的研究是木材科学领域的研究热点之一[2]。近年来关于细胞壁超微构造形成的研究较多,如葡萄糖形成纤维素单链,继而形成微晶、微纤丝和结晶区等过程[3];射线技术、尖端显微镜以及光谱类仪器在木材超微结构表征中的应用[4],进一步揭示了微纤丝和结晶区的结构特征。研究发现微纤丝角和结晶度沿轴向和径向的变化规律不尽相同,对细胞形态的影响也不同[5-6],但对细胞壁微晶形态及变化特点方面的研究还不够深入;细胞壁超微构造会影响木材密度、干缩性和强度等物理力学性能[7-8],而探究微纤丝角、结晶度和微晶形态的形成及变化规律,是了解木材的基础性质的重要途径之一。以往对木材细胞壁超微构造的研究多集中于某一超微构造或某种表征方法方面,对不同种类木材及同种木材不同生长部位细胞壁纤维素微纤丝及结晶区的形成和变化及其表征方法未见系统报导。笔者详述了木材细胞壁微纤丝和结晶区的形成、表征方法、变化规律及其对细胞形态的影响,以期为今后木材的超微构造的深入研究和为基于细胞壁微纤丝和微晶结构特征来预测木材基础性质、早期良种选育以及材料的高效利用等方面提供详细的科学资料。
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树木木质部细胞次生壁在形成过程中,每一薄层的微纤丝沉积方向和排列密度都在不断发生变化,因此木材不同位置的微纤丝角不同[25]。微纤丝角决定材料微观和宏观的各项性能,直接关系到木材加工利用,被认为是影响木质纤维材料性质的重要指标。关于微纤丝角的株内变异规律目前有较多研究。
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研究认为,径向方向上同一年轮中早材的微纤丝角大于晚材;从髓心(幼龄材)到树皮(成熟材)平均微纤丝角逐渐减小,到一定年龄后趋于稳定。以长白落叶松Larix olgensis为例,从髓心到树皮微纤丝角在生长的前5 a急剧下降,第5年到第25年呈微小的波动变化,与银杏Ginkgo biloba,黑杨Populus nigra,垂枝桦Betula pendula等的微纤丝角变化规律一致[8, 25]。研究发现:云杉Picea aspoerata,垂枝桦和辐射松Pinus radiata等幼龄材的平均微纤丝角约为30°,幼龄材至成熟材变异幅度一般在10°左右,之后基本稳定[26-28]。目前认为:微纤丝角在径向产生这种变异的原因有2种。一种认为树木生长过程中,幼龄期细胞的直径增长快于长度生长,微纤丝轴向伸长受抑制,微纤丝角较大;进入成熟期后细胞长度生长快于直径生长,微纤丝在轴向得以延伸,微纤丝角较小[29]。另一种认为原生质流动方向及原生质体分生的纤维素含量越丰富,微纤丝的排列方向越接近细胞轴的方向;随树龄的增长,光合产物积累越多,分生细胞细胞壁的纤维素含量增多,微纤丝角越小[6]。
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木材轴向方向微纤丝角的变化规律表现为基部最大,从基部向上先减小后增加的变化趋势,但不同材种变化规律不尽相同。如刺楸Kalopanax septemlobus,油松Pinus tabulaeformis,毛白杨Populus tomentosa中最小的微纤丝角分别出现在1.3 m,3.3 m,5.3 m处;辐射松树高7.0 m以上、毛白杨高9.0 m以上时,微纤丝角趋于稳定,但在梢部的心材中微纤丝角有所增加[6, 30-31]。总体来说,微纤丝角轴向变异模式属于“大—小—大”的形式。目前关于微纤丝角产生轴向变异的原因尚缺乏明确的解释。
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纤维素的结晶区由纤维素大分子链有序排列形成,结晶区占纤维素整体的百分数即结晶度,可表征木材纤维素聚集态形成结晶的程度。木材纤维素结晶度在不同树种及同一树种不同部位均具有差异性。一般认为:针叶材的纤维素结晶度大于阔叶材。由表 1可知:多数针叶材的平均结晶度大于40%,而阔叶材一般为30%~40%[1, 7, 22, 32-40];但也有例外,如杨树Populus,泡桐Paulownia等低密度阔叶材的纤维素结晶度高于翠柏Calocedrus macrolepis,樟子松Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica等针叶材[7, 32-34]。结晶度的变化也与不同树种细胞生长发育阶段有关。通常认为随木质部细胞的不断发育,纤维素的结晶度会不断增加,且呈正相关。在径向方向的结晶度研究表明,随生长轮龄的增加,结晶度逐渐增大,至成熟后趋于稳定;并且在同一年轮内晚材的结晶度一般比早材的大[5, 36, 41]。目前,对沿树轴方向结晶度变化规律的研究不多,表现为自基部向上逐渐增加,到稍部有所减小[36]。
表 1 不同树种木材的结晶度
Table 1. Crystallinity of the woods in the different tree species
针叶材 结晶度/% 参考文献 阔叶材 结晶度/% 参考文献 湿地松Pinus elliottii 55 [36] 美国红橡Quercus spp. 36 [22] 马尾松Pinus massoniana 54 [1] 美国樱桃木Prunus serotina 32 [22] 挪威云杉Picea jezoensis > 40 [35] 美国黑胡桃Juglans nigra 38 [22] 杉木Cunninghamia lanceolata 47 [38] 胡桃Juglans regia 39 [37] 樟子松Pinus sylvestris > 40 [32] 小叶杨Populus simonii 35 [39] 臭冷杉Abies nephrolepis > 40 [39] 水曲柳Fraxinus mandshurica < 40 [39] 鱼鱗云杉Picea jezoensis > 40 [39] 白禅Betula platyphylla < 40 [40] 翠柏Calocedrus macrolepis 40 [33] 胡桃楸Juglans mandshurica 35 [39] 落叶松Larix gmelinii 54 [1] 春榆Ulmus davidiana 35 [39] 红松Pinus koraiensis 30-36 [39] 杨树Populus spp. 55 [7] 泡桐Paulownia fortunei 46 [34] -
天然纤维素中微小尺度的晶粒统称为微晶,常用微晶尺寸表征微晶的形态[42-43]。不同种类木材纤维素微晶的大小和形状并不均一,一般纤维素微晶宽3.00~5.00 nm,厚2.00~5.00 nm,长十至数百纳米,具体形态因树种而异[42]。对5种针叶材树种微晶尺寸的研究发现(表 2),这些针叶材树种的微晶宽度接近,为3.00~3.20 nm,但晶体长度则变化较大,为10.00~40.00 nm[43-46];对银杏幼龄材研究发现,微晶的宽度、长度和树龄相关性不大[43]。目前,关于木材微晶形态在成熟材和幼龄材中变化规律的研究较少。石江涛等[39]发现白桦Betula platyphlla和水曲柳Fraxinus mandschurica等木材早期组织中纤维素的晶型、晶胞或微晶大小与成熟材不同,但具体差别有待于进一步研究。
Formation, characterization and change of ultrastructure in wood cell wall
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摘要: 细胞壁是木材的实体物质,细胞壁超微构造因纤维素大分子链复杂的排列方式而具有多样性。微纤丝和结晶区均属木材细胞壁的超微构造,其形成、表征及变化规律的研究取得了很多进展。从微纤丝和结晶区的生物形成、微纤丝角和结晶度的表征方法、微纤丝角和结晶度在木材径向及轴向上的变化规律和少数树种中微晶形态变化特点,以及细胞壁超微构造与细胞形态的相关关系进行了综述,提出微纤丝取向形成机制的研究,细胞壁各层厚度累积的过程,以及纤维素微晶形态在木材生长过程中的变化规律研究将成为新的研究热点,以期为基于细胞壁微纤丝角、结晶度和微晶形态来进行多性状的综合遗传改良和早期良种选育等提供重要的科学依据。Abstract: Cell walls are the solid substances of wood. The ultrastructure of cell wall in woods is diverse because of the complex arrangement of cellulose macromolecules. The microfibril angle and crystalline area are generalized ultrastructure of wood cell wall; the research on their formation, characterization and change have made great progresses. This paper reviewed the formation of microfibrils and crystalline area, the measurement methods of various cell wall ultrastructure and the change characteristics of microfibril angle and crystallinity in radial and axial direction, the size of crystallites in a few tree species and the relationship of wood tracheid or fiber length with microfibril angle and crystallinity. The paper also proposed future research on the formation mechanism of microfibrils orientation, the accumulative process of layers in cell wall and the characteristics of crystallite morphology in the growth period in order to provide important scientific basis for comprehensive genetic modification of multi-traits and early breeding according to the cell wall cellulose microfibril angle, the crystallinity and crystallite morphology.
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Key words:
- wood science and technology /
- ultrastructure /
- formation /
- characterization methods /
- variation /
- review
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表 1 不同树种木材的结晶度
Table 1. Crystallinity of the woods in the different tree species
针叶材 结晶度/% 参考文献 阔叶材 结晶度/% 参考文献 湿地松Pinus elliottii 55 [36] 美国红橡Quercus spp. 36 [22] 马尾松Pinus massoniana 54 [1] 美国樱桃木Prunus serotina 32 [22] 挪威云杉Picea jezoensis > 40 [35] 美国黑胡桃Juglans nigra 38 [22] 杉木Cunninghamia lanceolata 47 [38] 胡桃Juglans regia 39 [37] 樟子松Pinus sylvestris > 40 [32] 小叶杨Populus simonii 35 [39] 臭冷杉Abies nephrolepis > 40 [39] 水曲柳Fraxinus mandshurica < 40 [39] 鱼鱗云杉Picea jezoensis > 40 [39] 白禅Betula platyphylla < 40 [40] 翠柏Calocedrus macrolepis 40 [33] 胡桃楸Juglans mandshurica 35 [39] 落叶松Larix gmelinii 54 [1] 春榆Ulmus davidiana 35 [39] 红松Pinus koraiensis 30-36 [39] 杨树Populus spp. 55 [7] 泡桐Paulownia fortunei 46 [34] -
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