Volume 41 Issue 1
Feb.  2024
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SHEN Fangfang, WANG Binyu, YAO Bida, MO Mingmin, LIAO Yingchun, FANG Huanying, ZOU Xianhua, LIU Wenfei, YUAN Yinghong, FAN Houbao. Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2024, 41(1): 211-222. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380
Citation: SHEN Fangfang, WANG Binyu, YAO Bida, MO Mingmin, LIAO Yingchun, FANG Huanying, ZOU Xianhua, LIU Wenfei, YUAN Yinghong, FAN Houbao. Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2024, 41(1): 211-222. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380

Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review

doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380
  • Received Date: 2023-06-29
  • Accepted Date: 2023-12-11
  • Rev Recd Date: 2023-12-11
  • Available Online: 2024-02-04
  • Publish Date: 2024-02-20
  • Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition is a global threat to biodiversity and ecosystem function. Since emission controls, N deposition has decreased or stabilized in European and North America, and China began to be stabilized in 2010. The future trajectory of N deposition may differ by regions. In this study, literature retrieval and extensive analytic methods were used to analyze N deposition recovery. The reaction of the forest ecosystem’ s soil (acidification and solution chemistry), structure (vegetation-microbial diversity), and function (productivity and carbon sequestration) to decreasing N deposition was studied. Soil solution chemistry (e.g., nitrate and ammonium concentrations, etc.) may responded very rapidly to reducing N input, whereas plant species composition, soil microbial communities, and soil processes may be slow in recovery. When N deposition is controlled, soil acidification can be reduced, and tree growth can be promoted. It is also possible that the vitality of plant may still deteriorating and soil acidity persists due to high rate of atmospheric N deposition. Restoration of plant diversity may face potential barriers to recovery and maintain eutrophication in the short term, but it supports the rise of species in a nutrient-poor. The response of forest ecosystem restoration to emission reduction strategies is delayed. The legacy of earlier N deposition result in a slow recovery, but recovery is simply a matter of time. Therefore, recovery from high N loads is a long and sluggish process, and further emission reduction efforts is still needed in the future. [Ch, 94 ref.]
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Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review

doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380

Abstract: Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition is a global threat to biodiversity and ecosystem function. Since emission controls, N deposition has decreased or stabilized in European and North America, and China began to be stabilized in 2010. The future trajectory of N deposition may differ by regions. In this study, literature retrieval and extensive analytic methods were used to analyze N deposition recovery. The reaction of the forest ecosystem’ s soil (acidification and solution chemistry), structure (vegetation-microbial diversity), and function (productivity and carbon sequestration) to decreasing N deposition was studied. Soil solution chemistry (e.g., nitrate and ammonium concentrations, etc.) may responded very rapidly to reducing N input, whereas plant species composition, soil microbial communities, and soil processes may be slow in recovery. When N deposition is controlled, soil acidification can be reduced, and tree growth can be promoted. It is also possible that the vitality of plant may still deteriorating and soil acidity persists due to high rate of atmospheric N deposition. Restoration of plant diversity may face potential barriers to recovery and maintain eutrophication in the short term, but it supports the rise of species in a nutrient-poor. The response of forest ecosystem restoration to emission reduction strategies is delayed. The legacy of earlier N deposition result in a slow recovery, but recovery is simply a matter of time. Therefore, recovery from high N loads is a long and sluggish process, and further emission reduction efforts is still needed in the future. [Ch, 94 ref.]

SHEN Fangfang, WANG Binyu, YAO Bida, MO Mingmin, LIAO Yingchun, FANG Huanying, ZOU Xianhua, LIU Wenfei, YUAN Yinghong, FAN Houbao. Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2024, 41(1): 211-222. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380
Citation: SHEN Fangfang, WANG Binyu, YAO Bida, MO Mingmin, LIAO Yingchun, FANG Huanying, ZOU Xianhua, LIU Wenfei, YUAN Yinghong, FAN Houbao. Response of high nitrogen-loaded forest ecosystem to decreasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition: a review[J]. Journal of Zhejiang A&F University, 2024, 41(1): 211-222. doi: 10.11833/j.issn.2095-0756.20230380
  • 大气氮沉降增加是全球范围内气候变化研究的热点问题[1]。过去150 a,由化石燃料燃烧和氮肥使用等人为活动输入的活性氮增加了10倍以上,导致大气氮沉降急剧增加[23]。研究表明:1860年,全球人类每年所创造的活性氮(Nr)约15 Tg,到20世纪90年代初期增加到了156 Tg,中国已成为全球三大主要氮沉降地区之一[1]。近些年,氮沉降的未来趋势可能因全球各地区经济结构调整和氮减排相关法规和政策的不同而异[24],高氮沉降区域可能会更加广泛,包括南美洲、非洲以及亚洲的大部分地区[5]。1984—2016年,全球无机氮沉降量增加了8%,从86.6 Tg·a−1增加到93.0 Tg·a−1,这一趋势包括可变区域模式的平衡[4],如东亚和巴西南部地区无机氮沉降的增加,欧洲及北美地区无机氮沉降的下降,以及1990—2015年欧洲氮氧化物(NOx)和氨(NH3)总排放量分别下降了50%和30%[6]。1980—2018年中国总氮沉降量和干氮沉降量的时空动态变化表明:总氮沉降在2000年达到峰值,2001—2005年开始趋于稳定,到2016—2018年下降了45%[79],至2019年NOx排放量降低了33%[1011],预计还会继续下降[12]。这些变化引起了研究者对氮沉降生态效应的重新思考。

    森林冠层表面积大,是氮沉降的重要汇,大气氮捕获效率高于其他土地利用类型[13]。SCHWEDE等[14]估算2010年全球森林生物群落的总氮沉降量为19~23 Tg·a−1。大气氮输入的增加导致许多森林生态系统的氮循环被破坏,从封闭循环转变为开放循环[1517]。一般认为,高纬度的温带和寒带地区是“氮限制”森林[18],热带和亚热带具有开放式氮循环,为“富氮”森林,对氮沉降有较高的耐受性[19]。长期过量的氮输入致使许多森林的氮远超临界负荷[2021],持续高氮沉降(40~60 kg·hm−2·a−1)造成“氮饱和”,致生态系统处于持续的高氮负荷状态[2223],显著改变了森林生态系统的结构和功能,影响碳-氮库,导致土壤酸化和林木生长降低等,甚至促使森林由氮限制趋向磷限制[2429],这些都将威胁森林的可持续性。

    在氮沉降降低背景下,科学评估大气氮沉降及其生态效应具有重要的理论和实践意义。早期关于氮沉降降低后森林的潜在恢复研究都是在欧洲和北美地区(寒带森林和温带森林)开展的,包括NITREX (nitrogen saturation experiments)屋顶“清洁雨”(roof clean rain)试验和森林施氮肥试验[3034]。鉴于此,本研究围绕森林生态系统土壤(酸化和溶液化学)、结构(植被-微生物多样性)与功能(生产力和碳吸存)对大气氮沉降降低的现有研究成果及新进展进行综述,试图阐明高氮负荷森林生态系统对氮沉降降低的响应及可能恢复的趋势,并提出未来研究方向,以期为森林生态系统对未来氮沉降进一步降低响应的生态效应提供参考与借鉴。

    • 利用Wiley、Elsevier、Springer、Google Scholar、中国知网、万方数据和维普网等文献检索系统,选择关键词“氮沉降(nitrogen deposition)”“氮添加(nitrogen addition)”“施氮(nitrogen fertilization)”“氮输入(nitrogen input)”“氮恢复(nitrogen recovery)”“氮遗留效应(nitrogen legacy)”锁定术语“森林(forest)”“林木/树木(tree)”“人工林(plantation)”,涵盖“生物多样性保护(biodiversity conservation)”“环境科学(environmental science)”“生态学(ecology)”“林业(forestry)”等研究领域。

      以“氮沉降恢复(nitrogen deposition recovery)”搜索产生403条记录,“施氮恢复(nitrogen fertilizer recovery)”搜索产生312条记录,核对以上记录并剔除重复的记录,确定了325条记录。通过阅读标题和摘要,删除与氮水平升高恢复无关的研究,剩下42条相关论文。进一步搜索关键词“氮停止(nitrogen cessation)”“氮减少/氮降低(nitrogen reduction)”“氮终止(nitrogen termination)”“氮滞后(nitrogen hysteresis)”并结合“氮沉降(nitrogen deposition)”,确定了另外10篇相关论文,共计52篇相关论文。在对这52篇论文进行阅读的基础上,剔除纯粹基于建模或试验性研究的文献,特别是试验设计中氮添加的效应和恢复无法区分其他养分添加(如添加了氮磷钾肥)效果的文献,但其他养分添加量极低的除外;长期监测发现氮和硫都发生了变化或者进行了去除氮和硫的“清洁雨”试验除外;如多因素试验(如氮沉降+降水、氮沉降+干旱、氮沉降+增温等),则只选择单一施氮/氮沉降试验研究论文。通过这些条件筛选,最终获得22篇相关研究论文。

    • 通过22篇研究论文对氮沉降恢复的方法进行归类。目前研究氮沉降降低生态系统恢复潜力的方法主要有4种:停止施氮、大气环境氮沉降监测、屋顶“清洁雨”和“移植(reciprocal transplant)” [3536]。停止施氮是在氮添加停止后继续监测最常用的方法[3738]。在22篇独立研究论文中有10篇使用这类方法。在这类研究中,不同陆地生物群落(热带、温带和寒带森林)在施氮时间、恢复时间、施氮量、施氮类型和试验设计等方面都有很大的变化。大气环境氮沉降监测则是监测单个或多个地点并比较环境氮沉降变化[39]。在这些研究中,氮浓度、氮沉降、其他污染物(特别是硫浓度和硫沉降)很可能也会随时间发生变化,并且在某些指标下,直接区分氮的影响比其他指标更容易。

      屋顶“清洁雨”试验主要应用于NITREX项目[4042],有9篇论文属于这类方法。采用屋顶收集清除氮和硫的雨水,然后将雨水(去除氮和硫)重新添加到屋顶下的样地中。这种方法被用于NITREX项目的欧洲试验网络,在丹麦、德国、瑞典和荷兰的6个森林地区,分别是Gårdsjön (低氮)、Klosterhede (低氮)、Aber (低氮)、Solling (高氮)、Speuld (高氮)和Ysselsteyn (更富氮)[43]。NITREX项目主要关注氮饱和、酸化及其可逆性,氮和硫均被去除[30],硫、氮和酸度分别降低了55%~95%、70%~90%和90%[40]。“移植”试验是植被或完整岩心的移植,用于评估氮沉降的恢复情况,包括将岩心从高氮浓度环境移植到低氮浓度环境中[44]或者移植到人工施氮环境中[36];将植被从低氮环境中移植到高氮环境中或从高氮环境移植到低氮环境中[45]

    • 大气氮沉降增加导致土壤酸化负生态效应,这已得到科学界和公众的广泛共识[35]。NOx和硫氧化物(SOx)沉降对土壤有较强的酸化作用,NH3沉降也对土壤酸化有促进作用。随着氮沉降保持在较高水平,森林生态系统逐渐呈现氮饱和,促使土壤溶液铵的积累,进一步促使铵氧化细菌(如亚硝基单胞菌)的活性增加,这些细菌将铵离子(${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $)氧化为硝酸盐,产生NH3和氢离子(H+),导致土壤快速酸化[46],从而增加了硝酸盐(${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $)浸出,提高了土壤酸化和铝毒的风险[4748]。当土壤碱性阳离子从土壤中转移的速度快于矿物风化或大气中营养阳离子沉降所能补充的速度时可能发生枯竭[34,49]。土壤碱性阳离子库枯竭,归因于氮饱和条件下长期氮沉降增加中氮的吸附能力有限,伴随着大量的${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $浸出[18, 25]

      相比温带森林,热带和亚热带森林土壤酸化严重,对酸非常敏感,土壤钙离子(Ca2+)和镁离子(Mg2+)更为匮乏[22, 25]。对热带森林的相关研究表明:氮添加6 a没有改变森林土壤可交换铝离子(Al3+),但显著增加了H+和阳离子交换量[25];此外,氮添加7 a并没有加剧热带阔叶人工林的土壤酸化[50],土壤pH、可交换性非酸性和酸性阳离子浓度均无显著变化,一直以来“氮沉降加剧土壤酸化”的观点并不适用所有森林,这增加了对氮沉降致土壤酸化的新认识。

      当氮沉降降低时,可在某种程度上减轻土壤酸化[31, 35],但也可能因当前环境中氮沉降速率依然很高,氮饱和的影响仍继续,土壤酸化未得到缓解并保持酸化[17, 37, 39]。可见,氮沉降降低时土壤酸化缓解受到2个因素制约:一是氮沉降降低前的沉降速率和沉降时间;二是当前大气环境中氮的沉降速率。早期在欧美温带地区研究显示:酸化生态系统恢复相当缓慢,其中一个非常重要原因是低估了氮在酸化中的贡献,并指出酸化后的土壤恢复在欧洲并不普遍[33]。同时,氮沉降减少的影响取决于各种处理措施从系统中去除氮的程度[36, 51]。只有当碱性阳离子的数量增加时,土壤酸化才会逆转,但这种情况可能会持续几十年[17]

    • 土壤溶液的化学性质对氮供应变化的响应迅速[36, 52]。监测氮沉降降低区域的土壤溶液化学性质为评估缓解策略和恢复提供了可能。生态系统中氮的保留能力和硝酸盐浸出量决定了土壤溶液的水化学变化[24, 43]。在NITREX试验中,发现3 a内氮沉降减少90%(从60 kg·hm−2·a−1降至5 kg·hm−2·a−1以下),苏格兰松Pinus sylvestris林的表层和深层土壤${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $浓度均明显降低,表层土壤的硫、硝酸盐和铵态氮(${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $-N)浓度显著下降,${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $/K和${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $/Mg也变得更低[17, 53]。随着环境氮沉降的降低,挪威云杉Picea asperata林土壤溶液中Ca2+、K+、${\rm{SO}}_4^{2 - } $和${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $浓度呈下降趋势[48],其中径流水中${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $浓度和土壤中可交换氮浓度等化学参数迅速下降,被解释为生态系统快速恢复的迹象[43, 54]

      欧美地区森林土壤溶液硝态氮(${\rm{NO}}_3^ -$-N)对氮沉降降低更为敏感,但降幅有限[33]。当大气氮沉降减少约25%(从 60 kg·hm−2·a−1降低至 45 kg·hm−2·a−1)时,可导致土壤溶液无机氮浓度迅速下降[17]。通过连续监测多个氮饱和指标的变化[如可溶性有机氮∶可溶性无机氮(DON∶DIN)、可溶性有机氮∶总溶解性氮(DON∶TDN)、可溶性有机碳∶硝态氮(DOC∶${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $-N)等],土壤溶液中这些化学成分的变化反映了2005—2014年欧洲温带氮饱和森林氮素状态的改善,体现在土壤溶液中DON∶TDN和DOC∶${\rm{NO}}_3^ - {\text{-}}{\rm{N}}$均呈上升趋势[55]。通过监测氮沉降减少区域森林土壤溶液化学,认为土壤氮库可能是控制氮沉降降低对森林生态系统的持续影响[33]。同时,对于低水平氮沉降(10~20 kg·hm−2·a−1)样地,减少氮输入是恢复土壤溶液化学的关键因素[16]

      BOXMAN等[56]屋顶“清洁雨”试验Ysselsteyn研究点中,氮沉降减少7 a,表层(10 cm)土壤溶液中的总氮通量下降了25%,其中铵态氮(${\rm{NH}}_4^ + $-N)下降了15%,而${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $-N增加了15%,铵/硝酸盐比例显著降低了约65%,土壤溶液的pH显著降低了约0.2个单位(降至3.0)。深层(90 cm)土壤溶液${\rm{NO}}_3^ - $和${\rm{SO}}_4^{2 - } $减少,表明土壤减少了对碱性阳离子的吸收,从而保留了生态系统中的营养物质。

      XIE等[37]采用示踪法研究中国西南地区氮饱和马尾松Pinus massoniana林对氮通量和15N去向,监测结果表明:停止施氮可导致氮矿化率和固定化率立即降低,甚至低于对照,氮浸出率也降低了;土壤氮淋溶对氮沉降减少的响应非常迅速,且相同氮水平下高铵态氮(NHx)沉降比硝态氮(NOy)沉降降低更快;然而,即使减少了氮的输入,大气氮沉降仍引起了明显的土壤酸化,这与当前研究点的环境氮沉降速率高有关,并在短期内无法缓解土壤酸化程度。

    • 作为一种外源氮,氮沉降增加直接提高了氮的有效性,极大地改变了森林生态系统的结构(植被多样性和微生物多样性)[5760]和功能(生产力和碳吸存)[6061],并通过寒带和温带森林的土壤酸化和富营养化威胁陆地生态系统的健康[25]。在当前大气氮沉降降低条件下,森林生态系统结构和功能的生态效应更值得关注。

    • 林下群落和物种对氮沉降变化的响应存在较大的差异。一般氮沉降增加条件下,物种多样性快速下降,物种组成发生变化,表现为嗜酸性物种减少而喜碱性物种增加[6, 62]。研究一致认为,林下植物物种组成和损失的变化与贫氮条件下氮有效性增加、林分覆盖和凋落物氮含量变化的间接影响有关[6]。而氮沉降降低条件下,高氮负荷生态系统中林下植被的恢复响应受前期氮沉降增加导致的富营养化和土壤酸化遗留效应的影响。植被多样性对氮沉降降低的恢复响应可归纳为3种轨迹:其一,氮沉降的影响可能是急性的,并与大气氮浓度有关[63],如由NH3造成的直接损害,从这种类型的影响中林下植被的恢复可能相对较快,恢复程度与氮沉降减少水平成一定比例[64];其二,随着氮沉降的长期影响,其他限制因素可能逐渐发展为主要影响因素,如土壤中氮的长期积累可能会导致生态系统的生态变化(如物种丰度的竞争性变化),从这些影响中林下植被的恢复速度较慢,需要通过脱氮、浸出、火灾或收割等措施去除生态系统中的氮[65];其三,由于物种的扩散能力和种子库枯竭等因素,生态恢复存在延迟[66]

      经过20 a高氮处理(108 kg·hm−2·a−1)的瑞典苏格兰松,在停止施氮后第8年,林下植被的组成与对照存在显著差异[67];第9年林下植被物种组成和物种丰度均未发生变化,植被多样性仍在减少[54]。STRENGBOM等[54]在瑞典北部开展了2次单独的森林施肥试验,以评估停止施氮后氮负荷的遗留效应,发现:第1次试验(1971—1990年)添加硝酸铵(NH4NO3)速率为108 kg·hm−2·a−1,停止施肥9 a后,林下植被的物种组成没有恢复的迹象,且生物多样性仍在继续减少;第2次试验(1937—1951年)添加NH4NO3累积量为1 447 kg·hm−2·a−1,停止施肥47 a后,喜氮苔藓增加了,然而,在最初“氮限制”生态系统中,生物类群恢复所需时间可能非常久。为了预测未来氮沉降进一步降低情景下林下植被的生态响应变化,DIRNBÖCK等[6]将2015年与2030、2050年的预测进行比较,评估氮减排立法条件下欧洲森林林下植被的生态效益,发现寡亲氮性林下植被物种将进一步减少,这与土壤酸化的恢复有关,但依然表明2030年氮沉降的减少可能不足以使富营养化恢复。ROWE等[68]提出使用超过临界负荷30 a累积氮沉降作为生态系统压力指标,以反映环境中过量氮的持久性,植被从富营养化中显著恢复可能需要减少氮的排放。

      SCHMITZ等[33]总结了欧洲森林对氮沉降减少的响应,没有观察到林下植被、树木生长大规模的响应。STEVENS等[36]对NITREX等试验的恢复进行了综述,在氮添加后恢复48 a时,也未发现物种组成、丰富度和多样性恢复的迹象,并讨论了恢复可能存在的障碍,包括持续临界负荷超标、缺乏种子库或当地种子来源,植被群落有可能达到另一种新的平衡状态,在这种状态下,因氮沉降变化而丧失的那些物种可能无法重新定居[34]

      氮沉降降低对贫营养型物种具有较大的促进作用。KAMMER等[69]研究发现:总植被覆盖率和禾本科Poaceae植物的覆盖率下降,而贫营养物种的覆盖率上升;总物种数在氮沉降较高的研究点减少,而在氮沉降较低的研究点(低于临界负荷)趋于增加,尤其是贫营养型物种数的增加较多。氮减少可能对物种多样性产生可衡量的积极影响,并进一步指出由于氮沉降的减少,尤其是在贫营养区,物种组成可能恢复。

      时间可能是植被多样性恢复的重要因素之一[34, 59]。氮沉降的减少导致了植被物种多样性的恢复,此恢复过程缓慢[54],恢复原先的物种组成十分困难[54, 59],氮沉降先增加后降低的过程中,对氮敏感的物种已经消失,难以重新建立。适应环境变化的新物种建立需要几十年,尽管如此,物种多样性的恢复只是时间问题[59]

    • 高氮沉降导致的土壤环境恶化不仅影响了地上生态系统过程,也影响了地下生态系统过程。大气氮沉降增加对全球范围内所有陆地生态系统的土壤微生物生长、组成和功能均产生了负面影响[70],并随沉降速率和持续时间的增加其负面影响更为显著,还导致了土壤微生物呼吸和微生物量碳的减少,降幅分别为8%和20%[71]。长期土壤氮富集会降低土壤微生物总生物量[31, 72]、真菌/细菌生物量比[71, 73]、微生物活性[71]及胞外酶的活性(尤其是参与木质素分解的相关酶)[34, 74]

      氮诱导土壤细菌和真菌群落发生显著变化,且真菌比细菌更敏感[20, 31],表现为增加了富营养类群细菌的相对丰度,而降低了真菌分解者(如酵母、纤维素分解子囊菌)和亲氮类群的相对丰度[34]。有机氮增加导致土壤真菌群落的物种丰富度和多样性急剧下降,群落组成也显著变化;而无机氮增加会刺激热带和温带森林土壤腐生真菌的丰富度[75]。如7 a氮添加降低了亚热带森林土壤细菌和真菌的α多样性,且细菌群落从富营养型(以变形菌为主)转变为寡营养型(以放线菌为主)[76]。此外,氮沉降增加直接(真菌或土壤介导)和间接(树木介导)影响菌根真菌[7778],促使优势树种从外生菌根树种向丛枝菌根树种转变,关键分类群消失将降低其获取有机氮和/或磷的能力,从而抑制有机质的分解[78]

      森林土壤的氮负荷和氮饱和度的逆转会产生不同的微生物功能反应[42]。停止施氮后第6~8年,土壤微生物群落数量和活性均有所提高[35]。外生菌根真菌菌丝体可能占氮限制针叶树林中微生物量约40%[72]。在寒带和温带森林中,针叶树的外生菌根比落叶树更敏感,氮临界负荷分别为5~6和10~20 kg·hm−2·a−1。由于菌根共生是差异反应的驱动因素,当超过临界负荷时,强烈的“植物-土壤”和“微生物-土壤”反馈可能会减缓氮沉降减少后的恢复速度,氮沉降的遗留效应问题也可能持续存在[78]。在微生物活性方面,基于德国Solling研究点的屋顶试验(相比对照减少65%氮)16 a研究结果表明:参与氮循环的7种土壤酶对氮沉降减少的响应不同,其中脲酶、精氨酸脱氨酶、丙烯酰氨基肽酶和赖基-丙烯酰氨基肽酶活性增加,而N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖酶、蛋白酶、亮基氨基肽酶和丙烯酰-丙烯酰-苯基氨基肽酶活性降低[42]。土壤剖面微生物量对氮沉降减少的响应表现为促进表层土壤真菌生物量的增加,而降低深层土壤真菌生物量,且土壤剖面微生物量参数随深度的增加而减少[4142]

      瑞典寒带苏格兰松的氮添加终止试验发现:土壤真菌群落有恢复的迹象,但细菌群落没有恢复[31]。该样地的系列研究结果表明:施氮(110 kg·hm−2·a−1)终止后第6年外生菌根开始恢复[72],终止后第14年土壤外生菌根真菌的扩增子相对丰度增加,真菌生物标志物18:2w6,9和外生菌根真菌与真菌总DNA序列均高于继续施氮的35和70 kg·hm−2·a−1处理[31, 72],这表明高氮负荷迅速降低了外生菌根在森林氮循环中的功能,但在氮负荷终止后的第6~14年内出现了显著的恢复;终止后第20年,土壤微生物标志物18:2w6,9恢复明显,并与对照无差异[32],其中球孢假单胞菌Piloderma sphaerosporum能够在长期的高氮浓度下持续存在,在低氮条件下更具竞争力,并在氮浓度降低时恢复[31]

    • 氮沉降增加提高了“氮限制”森林生态系统的氮有效性,氮限制的解除最初刺激了树木的生长,促使森林“碳汇”大幅增加[7982]。BRAUN等[24]研究发现:挪威云杉Picea abies和苏格兰松的生长与氮沉降之间存在正相关性。然而,随施氮时间的延长,其他限制因素(如磷[24])等逐渐产生影响,氮对林木增长的影响是不可持续的。

      大气氮沉降增加也被认为是导致森林衰退的主要因素[24, 48],同时还导致树木的死亡率增加[33, 82]。其原因可能是:其一,氮沉降增加诱导营养失调有利于浅根分布,同时铝毒造成的根损伤极大地改变了树木营养[48];其二,有机土壤中钙铝比的降低导致了林木死亡率的增加[18, 82];其三,碱性阳离子的减少大大降低了土壤溶液中的养分浓度,致使树木衰弱,呈现树木活力丧失(落叶和变色)等症状[48, 83]

      氮沉降降低条件下,高氮饱和森林生产力的恢复目前没有得到共识。在NITREX项目屋顶“清洁雨”试验的6个研究点中,试验第4~5年,发现随氮和硫输入的减少,高氮饱和研究点(Ysselsteyn)树木生长增加了50%,这表明酸化污染物对该地区树木健康有破坏性影响,然而在其他NITREX站点中,几乎没有观察到恢复响应[43]。通过设置氮沉降降低90% (从60 kg·hm−2·a−1降至5 kg·hm−2·a−1)来评估氮饱和效应是否可逆,BOXMAN等[15]发现喜硝化植被的地上生物量显著下降,菌根真菌的子实体则重新定植并增加;同时,叶氮浓度下降,营养平衡得到改善,树木的生长得到了较大的改善。氮沉降降低期间(1993—2009年)挪威云杉除了叶氮和铝含量分别保持稳定并增加外,叶中所有其他养分含量均有所下降,表明林木活力仍在恶化,但叶精氨酸氮含量的迅速下降被认为是恢复的最初迹象[48]

      MITCHELL等[45]通过1 a的“移植”试验研究,发现大气氮沉降增加(植被从氮沉降12 kg·hm−2·a−1样地移植到54 kg·hm−2·a−1样地)促进了橡树林中附生苔藓组织氮含量的增加,但生长下降;相反,随着大气氮沉降的减少(植被从氮沉降54 kg·hm−2·a−1样地移植到12 kg·hm−2·a−1样地),罗望子Frullania tamarisci的器官组织氮含量下降,但其生长量增加。尽管在氮沉降减少后附生植物的恢复是可能的,但氮沉降减少引起的反应不如氮增加引起的反应强和(或)快,且苔藓植物从过量氮沉降中恢复的时间尺度比氮添加影响的时间尺度更长[45]

    • 森林生态系统地上碳主要由氮诱导的森林生长变化决定[74],地下碳主要由氮诱导的生化组成、凋落物输入和土壤呼吸的变化共同决定,因此地上碳和地下碳之间响应不同[8486]。在氮促进森林生长和碳吸存的情况下,土壤碳吸存取决于凋落物碳输入和土壤呼吸碳输出之间的平衡。由于凋落物碳输入增加和(或)土壤呼吸碳输出减少[86],氮添加可能会增加土壤碳吸存[80, 87],整合分析也证实了氮添加刺激了土壤固碳[61],主要原因为:其一,富氮增加凋落物输入,改善凋落物质量(如降低凋落物C/N),促使凋落物分解,导致土壤碳积累;其二,富氮刺激根系生物量中碳的积累,从而增加了土壤碳的保有量[88];其三,氮诱导的碳输入量大于土壤微生物活动的碳排放量[71]。在美国Bernhard Fernow试验林,氮添加25 a后,植物碳分配的改变增强了生态系统碳储量,主要表现在:其一,氮添加通过将碳分配从地下组分转移到地上生物量;其二,氮添加降低了氮素获取的碳成本,使植被能够更有效地吸存碳;其三,地表碳储量的增加主导了生态系统对长期氮添加的响应[89]

      LU等[61]通过对热带森林11 a的氮添加试验研究发现:氮沉降促进土壤碳吸存具有普适性,并提出了土壤碳吸存假说,认为在“氮限制”生态系统中,氮添加通过增加森林净初级生产力(NPP)和地上凋落物产量,以及降低地下碳分配和二氧化碳(CO2)排放通量来增加土壤碳吸存;而在“富氮”生态系统中,长期氮沉降没有改变NPP,但通过减少CO2排放通量和可溶性有机碳输出来促进土壤碳吸存。尽管这2种生态系统中涉及碳通量的关键生态过程存在明显差异,但土壤碳吸存模式相似,均表现为土壤惰性有机碳增加。

      然而,氮添加可能耗尽土壤碳库[90]或者不影响土壤碳吸存[91],这与森林类型、施氮量和持续时间有关。NGABA等[86]表明氮富集显著增强了寒带和温带森林的碳动态,平均提高了24%和10%,而热带和亚热带森林分别降低了19%和11%;富氮提高了寒带森林(6%)和温带(7%)森林的土壤碳输出,而降低了热带(10%)和亚热带(30%)森林的土壤碳输出。此外,寒带森林碳库和碳输入对氮添加的响应更为显著,分别增加了17%和10%;而亚热带森林分别降低了0.4%和19.0%,这归因于“富氮”生态系统中较高水平的土壤呼吸(碳输出)[59, 85]。值得注意的是,“氮限制”森林生态系统是全球主要的森林净“碳汇”,氮添加促进了土壤碳吸存,尤其是短期(<1 a)低氮添加水平(30 kg·hm−2·a−1),但土壤碳吸存效应在较高氮添加水平和(或)较长的时间内会被逆转[85]。因此,氮添加是否促进森林碳吸存一直存在争论[9293]

      虽然有关氮沉降降低对森林生态系统碳吸存影响的研究较少,但生态系统碳对氮沉降减少的响应不同于其对氮沉降增加的响应[94]。屋顶“清洁雨”处理10 a促进了挪威云杉林的土壤年呼吸量(24%)[41]。NGABA等[85]研究表明:氮饱和森林中,环境氮沉降减少可能会阻碍森林碳吸存,将导致森林土壤的低碳吸存。WAMELINK等[51]通过模型估计,发现氮沉降减少可能导致针叶林和落叶林的固碳量大幅减少,氮沉降降低25 a (从40 kg·hm−2·a−1逐渐减少到10 kg·hm−2·a−1),荷兰森林的净固碳量将降至目前的27%。这与研究中针叶林和落叶林均为老龄林有关,老龄林存在净碳排放,随着时间的推移,可能导致碳吸存减少,但这种负面影响可能会被温室气体一氧化二氮(N2O)排放的减少所抵消[51],可见,氮沉降减少对森林生态系统NPP和碳吸存的影响十分有限[94]

    • 目前,有关氮沉降降低对土壤和生态系统影响的认识大部分是基于欧洲和北美地区的相关研究,中国森林生态系统的恢复研究刚刚起步,仅有少量报道[12, 23, 37]。已有研究发现:几乎所有的生态过程都会对氮沉降降低产生强烈响应,但存在很大差异。一些土壤溶液化学(如硝酸盐和铵浓度等)对氮输入减少的响应相对较快,而植被物种组成、土壤微生物群落和土壤生态过程可能恢复缓慢。尽管一些研究表明氮沉降减少后森林生态系统会有所改善,但高氮负荷生态系统的恢复是一个长期且缓慢的过程,进一步加强减排尤为重要。然而,森林生态系统对清洁空气法案和氮减排政策的响应存在延迟,导致生态系统对氮沉降影响前的恢复滞后时间不同。同时,森林生态系统对氮沉降减少的响应不如对氮沉降增加的响应强(快),森林生态系统(前期经历了过量的氮沉降)如何应对有效氮的减少?这些研究既是挑战,也是机遇。

      将来建议从以下几个方面开展氮恢复相关研究:其一,由于严格的环境空气质量标准,预计中国的氮沉降率和氧化态氮(NOx)与还原态氮(NHx)的比例将会下降。相比NOx沉降,NHx沉降对森林生态系统和生物多样性的威胁更大。需关注NHx沉降对生态系统多样性的影响,同时将森林生物多样性与生态系统多功能性相结合,探讨氮沉降降低背景下森林地上/地下生物群落驱动生态系统多功能性作用机制。其二,从区域尺度到全球尺度了解氮沉降的现状以及氮沉降的未来变化对森林土壤和生态系统结构和功能的影响,为全球氮循环时空变化规律提供新证据,并为减轻氮沉降的负面影响提供科学依据。其三,研究森林生态系统对氮沉降降低单因子及与全球变暖、CO2增加、降雨格局变化、干旱等多因子之间交互作用的响应,探讨森林生态系统对未来气候变化情景的响应与适应机制。其四,加强森林生态系统对氮沉降区域趋势的响应研究。在氮沉降增加的地区,氮沉降增加对生态系统的影响需要进一步评估;在氮沉降减少的地区,未来需要更多地了解生态系统恢复的趋势及相关机制。

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