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钙(Ca)信使系统是植物细胞内研究最广泛的信号传导系统之一。钙离子(Ca2+)被称为“植物细胞代谢的总调控元素”,不仅参与调节植物细胞的结构和代谢,而且作为第二信使,在各种生命过程中起着至关重要的作用 [1]。此外钙信号在植物响应逆境环境中同样发挥关键的作用。
当植物面临胁迫时,胞质游离Ca2+浓度会瞬时升高,进而激发细胞内各种生化反应,这种由Ca2+浓度变化产生的信号就是钙信号 [2]。钙信号的形式主要包括钙瞬变、钙振荡和钙波 [3−6]。植物细胞受到刺激后产生的胞质游离Ca2+浓度升高并不是持续的,质膜或细胞器膜上的Ca2+通道会迅速将Ca2+转运到胞内或胞外的钙库中使钙信号消失。这种Ca2+浓度瞬时上升又瞬时下降的模式就是钙瞬变[7],是植物细胞中最为常见的一种信号模式。钙振荡是胞质Ca2+浓度反复升降的一种形式,常见于植物的保卫细胞、根毛细胞、花粉管等部位,与根毛生长、花粉管伸长、蒸腾作用等生命过程密切相关 [8−12]。胞质Ca2+由点向周围沿一定方向扩散的形式是钙波。
钙信号的形成实际上是胞内游离的自由钙离子的汇集和迁移。植物细胞中的钙主要分为结合态和自由离子2种形式。大多数钙以结合态存在,与细胞壁、线粒体、叶绿体、液泡、内质网等亚细胞结构或钙结合蛋白结合,构成植物细胞的“钙库”。相对于高浓度的“钙库”,植物细胞中自由Ca2+浓度却比较低。在静息状态下,胞质中游离Ca2+浓度([Ca2+]cyt)约为100~200 nmol·L−1,在受到外界刺激时,结合态的钙迅速被释放并转化为自由钙,以此来维持胞内Ca2+的动态平衡,为Ca2+发挥信使作用提供充分的保障[2]。除了胞内的“钙库”,胞外Ca2+通过位于细胞质膜上的Ca2+通道进入细胞,这也是钙信号产生的主要来源。Ca2+内流到胞内形成钙信号,随后又转变为结合态,降低胞质Ca2+浓度,维持胞质的钙稳态 [13−15]。
近年来,随着钙信号检测技术的不断发展,研究先后鉴定获得植物中多个能够感知由不同环境变化引起的钙信号受体,包括温度感受器COLD1 (CHILLING TOLERANCE DIVERGENCE 1)[16]、渗透感受器OSCA1 (hyperosmolality-induced [Ca2+]i increase channel)[17]、GIPC鞘脂盐受体(glycosyl inositol phosphorylceramide)[18]、醌类化合物受体CARD1 (CANNOT RESPOND TO DMBQ 1)[19]以及过氧化氢(H2O2)的感受器HPCA1 (HYDROGEN PEROXIDE-INDUCED Ca2+ INCREASES1)[20]。
在鉴定各种Ca2+通道蛋白及胁迫感受器的研究中,利用Ca2+化学荧光指示剂和Ca2+荧光指示蛋白对钙信号进行可视化检测发挥着关键作用。本文系统汇总了植物钙信号研究过程中Ca2+化学荧光指示剂和Ca2+荧光指示蛋白,为更好地了解并检测钙信号以及区分不同的钙信号提供经验。
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第1代化学荧光指示剂包括Quin-1、Quin-2、Quin-3等8种,其中Quin-2对Ca2+具有较高的亲和性,能很好地检测胞内静态Ca2+。但是由于Quin-2的激发光波长较短,光稳定性较差,因此不适合测定浓度较高的细胞钙 [26]。
第2代化学荧光指示剂有Fura-1、Fura-2、Fura-3、Indo-1等6种,其中以Fura-2和Indo-1为代表在植物中应用较多。该指示剂在与Ca2+结合后,发射光波长的最大峰值出现位移,因此采用双波长比率法进行测定。当Fura-2与Ca2+达到最大结合浓度时,在340 nm处的激发荧光强度瞬时增加3倍,而在380 nm处的激发荧光强度则会下降10倍。因此,340 nm/380 nm的荧光强度比值能更准确地反映植物细胞Ca2+浓度变化。Indo-1在350 nm激发后,发射峰由游离态时的485 nm移至饱和态时的410 nm。410 nm/480 nm的荧光强度比值与Ca2+浓度成正比。与非比率指示剂(Calcium Green)相比,这种比率指示剂受细胞内指示剂浓度及细胞间分布变化影响更小,使定量分析更加简单[33]。与Quin-2相比,第2代荧光指示剂的离子选择性和荧光强度都有所提升,有效地减少了测量条件的微小变化对游离Ca2+测定误差的影响,包括试剂浓度、光波长、仪器灵敏度、光漂白效应、指示剂泄漏以及细胞厚度和细胞内荧光指示剂分布的不均匀性等因素,因此,该方法具有更高的准确性。然而,这些指示剂在某些类型细胞中无法完全水解,并且有时会出现区域化现象 [34−35]。相较于动物细胞,在酸性条件下使用Indo-1可以成功测量植物细胞胞质中Ca2+,如大麦糊粉原生质体、经细胞分裂素处理后的苔藓Funaria hydrometrica原丝体细胞[36]、虞美人Papaver rhoeas花粉管[37]。目前,由美国AAT Bioquest最新开发的Fura-8比值型指示剂具有更高的信噪比,同时保持了对Ca2+相似的亲和力,其吸收和发射波长在红色光谱方向上移动,可以通过监测530 nm处的发射强度计算354和415 nm处的激发强度比,进而求得信号/背景荧光的比值,同时可以通过相对更具有性价比的大功率发光二极管(LED)激发,并与常见的发射滤波器组兼容 [38]。
第3代荧光指示剂包括Rhod-1、Rhod-2、Fluo-1、Fluo-2和Fluo-3等5种单波长指示剂。其中Fluo-3表现最佳,在植物中的应用也最多,其激发波长位于可见光区,最大激发波长为506 nm,最大发射波长为526 nm,有效避免了第1、2代钙荧光指示剂由于紫外光激发而引起的细胞自发荧光的干扰和对细胞的损伤 [28]。在监测受精过程中的玉米Zea mays离体卵细胞的[Ca2+]cyt时,相较于可能被水解的Fura-2及微注射时可能造成的损伤, Fluo-3是最优选择,其灵敏性高,结合Ca2+后,荧光强度提升了35~40倍[39]。目前,Fluo-3已经广泛应用于植物组织器官中的Ca2+测定[40]。激光扫描共聚焦显微镜与Fluo-3的结合使用,使活体植物细胞中Ca2+动态的可视化成为可能[41]。与Indo-1等第2代荧光指示剂不同的是,Fluo-3不能以酸性形式渗透进入细胞,常常在细胞壁内被酯酶在胞外裂解。利用Fluo-3和Fura Red的混合物,借助激光扫描共聚焦显微镜可以直观地检测出不同生理状态下红叶藜Chenopodium rubrum根尖组织细胞中游离胞质Ca2+水平的真实差异[42]。此外,花粉管是研究信号分子和顶端生长的重要的单细胞模型。在探究花粉细胞负载Fluo-3的最适温度时,发现高温(37 ℃)更有利于钙敏感探针进入花粉,并且高温孵育对花粉的细胞活性影响也更小[43]。
尽管第3代荧光指示剂较之前已有极大发展,但是与之后的基因编码Ca2+指示剂相比仍具有较大的缺陷。在研究棉花Gossypium hirsutum纤维的发育过程时,相较于基因编码Ca2+指示剂Yellow Cameleon 3.6 (YC3.6),Fluo-3的光沉积问题十分严重,导致由该指示剂提供的胞内Ca2+分布的信息相对来说并不准确 [44]。根据最新报道,除了Fluo-3以外,Fluo-4也是常用的第3代荧光指示剂。该指示剂的乙酰甲氧基(AM)酯形式有助于指示剂大量加载到活体细胞中,且不需要转染,是一种灵活、快速、无细胞毒性的指示剂。该指示剂在不同加载对象中的加载温度和时间都不同。在沙梨Pyrus pyrifolia花粉管中需要25 ℃加载15 min,在拟南芥Arabidopsis thaliana根毛中需在4 ℃下加载30 min,而在苹果Malus pumila果肉原生质体中则要37 ℃ 30 min [45]。
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目前,各类荧光指示剂已经广泛应用于监测不同状态、不同组织和器官中Ca2+的动态变化。引入基因编码Ca2+指示器(genetically encoded calcium indicator, GECI)进行Ca2+动态监测是一种革命性的发展,这些GECI包括aequorin、基于GFP的Ca2+探针、基于生物发光共振能量转移(bioluminescence resonance energy transfer,BRET)的指示剂等 [46]。
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第1个基因靶向的生物发光传感器是Ca2+传感器aequorin,一种源自生物发光水蛭水母Aequorea victoria的蛋白[47]。aequorin由腔肠素(coelenterazine)、脱辅基水母荧光蛋白(apoaequorin)和氧气(O2)反应生成。当aequorin和Ca2+结合后,原有的复合物结构被破坏,腔肠素被氧化生成高能产物(coelenteramide),同时释放出二氧化碳(CO2)和蓝色光(465 nm) [48]。根据aequorin蛋白的这一特性,可以实时监测Ca2+的浓度。1991年,KNIGHT等[49]首次在转基因植物中转入重组aequorin,并且通过该蛋白报告了由触摸、冷休克和真菌诱导物引起的钙变化。1995年,JOHNSON等[50]利用aequorin蛋白靶向胞质和叶绿体,检测出了通过明暗信号相移的昼夜节律下的钙振荡。随后,利用aequorin蛋白证实Ca2+在氧迸发信号转导中的作用以及细胞骨架在调节胞外刺激引起的钙强度中的作用 [51−52]。2000年,将钙指示剂aequorin蛋白靶向特定的组织和细胞类型,通过测量拟南芥体内急性寒冷、渗透和盐胁迫期间特定细胞类型的[Ca2+]cyt,揭示了拟南芥根部钙信号的复杂性 [53]。2001年,通过检测aequorin在转基因株系幼苗的不同组织和细胞之间的差异积累,表明了细胞和组织的Ca2+节律振荡具有明显的相位差异[54]。2008年,TRACY等[55]利用aequorin发现氯化钠在拟南芥根部诱导的[Ca2+]cyt的增加是异质性的。
利用aequorin蛋白测定植物细胞钙信号具有一定优势。首先,该方法不会对细胞造成伤害;其次,aequorin蛋白不会外泌,不会在细胞内区室化或凝集;第三,该蛋白不需要激发光源;最后,该蛋白在添加信号肽后能准确定位钙离子信号的亚细胞位置。因此,aequorin蛋白能在不影响植物正常的生长发育的同时进行较长时间的检测,该荧光蛋白的应用极大地推进了钙信号的研究进程 [49, 56]。然而,aequorin的量子产率非常低,需要数百甚至数千个蛋白同时反应才能达到可以检测的光子发射量水平,因此早期也难以将Ca2+浓度和发光水平校准,无法高分辨率成像而停滞发展[57]。而近些年相机灵敏度的不断发展重振了aequorin成像的应用,从而为基因筛选提供了基础 [48]。
在最新的研究进展中,针对植物内质网(ER)腔内游离Ca2+浓度动态变化的精确测量中,Ca2+敏感生物发光蛋白aequorin仍然是在动态浓度值范围内精确监测Ca2+处理的最合适的工具 [15]。
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YC是基于荧光共振能量转移(FRET)的指示蛋白。这种蛋白包含2个GFP变体,即青色荧光蛋白(cyan fluorescent protein,CFP)和黄色荧光蛋白(yellow fluorescent protein,YFP),这2个变体通过Ca2+结合蛋白钙调蛋白和钙调蛋白结合肽M13连接在一起。Ca2+和YC的钙调蛋白结合导致指示剂的构象变化,使CFP和YFP接近,并使CFP和YFP之间的FRET增强。通过记录FRET随时间的比率变化从而定量测量Ca2+的动态[46]。
1999年,首次报道了YC在植物中的成功应用,即使用YC2.1测量拟南芥保卫细胞中的[Ca2+]cyt [58]。之后,通过对cameleon蛋白的迭代改进,用circularly permuted (cp) YFP (cpCitrine或cpVenus)来代替YFP蛋白,降低对pKa、Cl−以及光漂白的敏感性 [47, 59−60]。在YC蛋白的更新过程中,尽管还有YC3.1、YC4.6的研究报道,但是这些YC蛋白对Ca2+的亲和力要低于YC3.6,因此之后常用的YC通常为YC3.6 [61−62]。已经有利用YC3.6监测Ca2+动态变化的研究报道,如检测拟南芥活体根部不同区域在有毒金属刺激下[Ca2+]cyt的动态变化、生长花粉管以及根系胞质和细胞核的Ca2+动态 [63−66]。4mt-YC3.6和NLS-YC3.6也可以研究同一细胞线粒体和细胞核Ca2+动力学的相互作用 [67]。
不同生物中YC3.6的表达情况也各不相同,不同模式生物的Ca2+动力学也有显著差异。如拟南芥中的UBQ10启动子要比35S启动子更适合在水稻Oryza sativa中表达YC3.6,而且UBQ10更有助于YC3.6在复杂组织中的统一表达 [68]。
不同的基因编码探针对不同细胞器内的Ca2+变化水平的灵敏度也不同。Cameleon D3cpv对内源性线粒体CaM的变化水平更加敏感,因此要比YC3.6更适合用于监测植物细胞线粒体内Ca2+动态 [69]。
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GCaMP是一种用于监测胞内Ca2+浓度的荧光蛋白传感器,通过基因工程将CaM、M13肽和环形排列的增强型绿色荧光蛋白(circularly permutated enhanced GFP, cpEGFP)结合而成 [70−71]。cpEGFP的N端由增强型绿色荧光蛋白EGFP (enhanced GFP)第149~238位氨基酸组成,C端由EGFP第1~144位氨基酸构成,而六肽GGTGGS将cpEGFP的N端与C端相连。cpEGFP的N端和C端分别与M13肽和CaM进一步连接,形成GCaMP [32]。在低钙状态下,GCaMP的cpEGFP发出弱荧光信号;而在高钙状态下,胞内Ca2+结合到CaM,使其与M13肽结合,导致cpEGFP的荧光信号增强。通过监测cpEGFP的荧光信号变化,可以实时反映胞内Ca2+浓度的动态变化。GCaMP作为一种胞内Ca2+监测工具,具有高灵敏度、实时成像、单蛋白传感器的优势,可通过基因转染在不同细胞和生物系统中广泛应用。然而,其响应速度相对较慢,过高的表达水平可能对细胞产生不良影响,而且在一些特定条件下可能受到背景噪声和钙亲和性的影响。目前,GCaMP在植物中的应用主要以拟南芥为主,但通过制定针对性的转化方案,该荧光蛋白也可用于其他作物或光合生物,如浮游植物[72]。对上述几种钙信号指示剂的原理与特点进行总结,如表1。
表 1 钙信号指示剂比较
Table 1. Comparison of calcium signal indicators
种类 名称 发明
年份激发波长/
发射波长/nm检测原理 化学荧光指示剂 Quin-2 1980 339/492 与Ca2+结合后分子构象发生变化,吸收峰从短波向长波方向移动,荧光强度增加 Fura、Indo 1985 369/478 与Ca2+结合后长波长处荧光信号增强,短波长处减弱,通过双波长激发的比值表示钙离子浓度变化 Fluo、Rhod 1989 506/526 与Ca2+结合后仅在长波长处荧光信号增强 基因编码钙指示剂 Aequorin 1962 −/465 多肽apoaequorin和疏水性发光体coelenterazine形成水母发光蛋白复合体,与Ca2+结合后发出蓝光 Cameleon 1997 425/535 Cameleon由CFP、YFP、CaM和M13融合而成,CaM与Ca2+结合形成复合物,使M13与CaM结合的亲和性增强,进而使CFP激发YFP产生长波长荧光 GCaMP 2001 489/509 GCaMP由CaM、M13和cpGFP结合而成,CaM与Ca2+结合形成复合物,使M13与CaM结合的亲和性增强,导致cpGFP的荧光信号增强
Research progress on plant calcium signaling indicators
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摘要: 钙离子(Ca2+)是植物信号传递中重要的第二信使,对植物的生长发育和胁迫响应起着至关重要的作用。近年来,随着生物化学和分子生物学技术的不断进步,钙信号指示剂在植物研究中的应用取得了显著进展。本文综述了关于钙信号指示剂在植物应用中的发展情况,包括钙指示剂的分类、钙信号检测原理及其在植物应用中的发展。钙信号指示剂的应用提供了可视化观察植物细胞内钙离子动态变化的有效手段,将植物细胞内的钙离子浓度转化为荧光信号。随着指示剂的发展,从最早的化学荧光指示剂逐步向基因编码钙指示剂过渡,能更加精确、实时、生物友好地观察到植物钙信号,对植物应对外界刺激时分子水平的应激手段有了更加深入的认识,成为研究植物应激分子水平上的重要生理指标。同时,本文还对钙信号指示剂在植物研究中存在的挑战和未来发展方向进行了讨论,指出了植物钙信号研究的特殊性与植物细胞中孵育钙指示剂的挑战性,以期为进一步推动该领域的研究提供参考和启示。表1参73Abstract: Calcium ion (Ca2+) is the important second messenger that plays a crucial role in plant growth and development and stress response. In recent years, with the continuous progress of biochemistry and molecular biology technology, the application of calcium signaling indicators in plant research has made remarkable progress. This paper reviewed the recent developments on calcium signal indicators in plant applications, including the classification of calcium indicators, the principles of calcium signal detection and their development in plant applications. The application of calcium signal indicators provide an effective means to visualize and observe the dynamic changes of calcium ion in plant cells, converting calcium concentrations in plant cells into fluorescent signals. With the development of indicators, gradual transition changing from the earliest chemical fluorescent indicators to genetically encoded calcium indicators, calcium signals can be observed more accurate, real-time and biologically friendly in plant cells, and have a more in-depth understanding of the means of stress at the molecular level when the plant responds to external stimuli, and became an important physiological indicator at the molecular level of the study of plant stress. Meanwhile, the challenges and future development directions of calcium signaling indicators in plant research were discussed, pointing out the specificity of plant calcium signaling research with the challenges of incubating calcium indicators in plant cells, with a view to providing references and insights to further promote research in this field. [Ch, 1 tab. 73 ref.]
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Key words:
- Ca2+ /
- calcium signaling indicators /
- plant /
- growth and development /
- stress response
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表 1 钙信号指示剂比较
Table 1. Comparison of calcium signal indicators
种类 名称 发明
年份激发波长/
发射波长/nm检测原理 化学荧光指示剂 Quin-2 1980 339/492 与Ca2+结合后分子构象发生变化,吸收峰从短波向长波方向移动,荧光强度增加 Fura、Indo 1985 369/478 与Ca2+结合后长波长处荧光信号增强,短波长处减弱,通过双波长激发的比值表示钙离子浓度变化 Fluo、Rhod 1989 506/526 与Ca2+结合后仅在长波长处荧光信号增强 基因编码钙指示剂 Aequorin 1962 −/465 多肽apoaequorin和疏水性发光体coelenterazine形成水母发光蛋白复合体,与Ca2+结合后发出蓝光 Cameleon 1997 425/535 Cameleon由CFP、YFP、CaM和M13融合而成,CaM与Ca2+结合形成复合物,使M13与CaM结合的亲和性增强,进而使CFP激发YFP产生长波长荧光 GCaMP 2001 489/509 GCaMP由CaM、M13和cpGFP结合而成,CaM与Ca2+结合形成复合物,使M13与CaM结合的亲和性增强,导致cpGFP的荧光信号增强 -
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